3. Stereotype

(注意：stereotype有两种考法，一种是考stereotype formation，另一种是stereotype effect，我会分成两篇写)

Stereotype Formation：

Introduction：

Definition: A stereotype is a generalized and rather fixed way of thinking about a group of people

·      In-group bias: See the in-group as being superior to the out-group to increase self-esteem.

·      Out-group homogeneity: see the members of outgroups as more similar to each other than they are.

·      (In-group bias + Out-group homogeneity) Negative stereotype about out-group member

Transition: A theory about the origin of stereotyping is illusory correlation, which states when we perceive a relationship between two variables, an illusory bond is likely to be formed even there is none. 

The link between illusory correlation and formation of stereotyping:

·      rare and surprising behaviors are more salient

·      people tend to remember them

·      establish a false correlation-cognitive bias

·      affect one’s judgment and perception of an individual or group.

 

Body:

Schaller

Aim: to see whether social categorization will lead to stereotypes

Procedure:

·      Randomly assign to be members of a group

·      Give a booklet with a series of statements that described members in the group to which they had been assigned and the group that was not their group.

·      There are an equal number of positive and negative statements about each group

Result:

·      When asked about their own group, recalled positive statements that favored their own group.

·      Recalled better the negative statement of the out-group.

Linkback:

·      Social categorization can lead to stereotypes.

·      Compare in-group and out group, participants see in-group as superior to out-group & outgroup member share similar traits, resulting in negative stereotypes about out-group.

Evaluation-strength:

·      High internal validity

Evaluation-limitation:

·      Low ecological validity (artificial-arbitrarily assigning groups cannot determine the salience of social identity)

 

Hamilton & Gifford

Aim: to investigate how stereotypes happen and how negative stereotypes get attributed to a group
Procedure: Lab Experiment

·      Two groups, A (majority group) and B (minority group)

·      Each group has the same proportion of positive and negative statements.

·      Participants were asked to estimate how many positive and negative statements each group has.

Result: Overestimate the number of negative traits in a minority group

Linkback: The illusory correlation is formed between the minority group and negative behavior. → overestimate the relationship→stereotypes that minority groups had negative traits

Evaluation-strength:

·      High internal validity, the same number of positive and negative statements.

Evaluation-limitation:

·      Low ecological validity (artificial there are more contexts to make stereotypes rather than just listening to the statement)

Effect:

Introduction:

Definition: Stereotype is a generalized and rather fixed way of thinking about a group of people

·      In group bias: See in-group as being superior to the out-group to increase self-esteem.

·      Out-group homogeneity: see the members of outgroups as more similar to each other than they actually are.

·      (In group bias + Out-group homogeneity) Negative stereotype about out-group member

Stereotype will generate negative effect, such as stereotype threat.

Stereotype threat indicates internalized stereotypes could influence an individual’s self-perception and behavior in negative ways.

How: Stereotype threat will increase “spotlight anxiety” or the feeling of that you are being judged. The anxiety then harms the performance.

 

Body:

Steele and Aronson

Aim: if stereotype threat would affect the performance of African Americans on a test of verbal abilities
Procedure: 76 participants

·      Condition 1: participants were told that the test is a verbal ability test

·      Condition 2: participants were told that the test is problem-solving skills test

·      Condition 3: participants’ race was told before the beginning of the test.

Result:

·      Condition 1: African American scored lower than white American

·      Condition 2: African American performed as well as white American.

·      Condition 3: African American did worse than white American

Linkback: Stereotype of verbal ability for African American generates spotlight anxiety, which will make them perform worse.

Evaluation-strength:

·      Control group-high internal validity

Evaluation-limitation:

·      Sample size bias-low generalizability

·      low ecological validity (participants will not face verbal test in the real world)

 

Martin and Halverson

Aim: to investigate if gender stereotypes would influence memory recall.

Procedure:

·      Show children pictures of males and females performing gender-consistent and gender-inconsistent activities.

·      A week later, recall what they had seen in the pictures & rate level of confidence.

Result:

·      Had distorted memories of gender-inconsistent pictures.

·      More confident and demonstrated less distortion of memory of gender consistent pictures.

Linkback:

·      Gender stereotypes could influence memory recall

·      As schemas, gender stereotypes affect which kinds of information are noticed and remembered.

 

Conclusion (for both formation and effect):

Theory evaluation-strength:

·      Testable/Empirical evidence: Hamilton & Gifford and Steele and Aronson

·      Application: Theory of stereotype explains why people sometimes will demonstrate worse performance and racism.

Theory evaluation-limitation:

·      Unbiased (sample size bias- People with different races and skin colors are not judged and discriminated against, so they may not show bad behavior.)