4. Reconstructive Memory
Key concepts:
Memory: is the process which the information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
· Encode – the input of information into the memory system
· Stored – is the retention of stored information
· Retrieved – getting information out of memory storage
Reconstructive memory:
· The reconstructive memory theory proposed that the memory is an active process involving the reconstruction of information stored, not just a passive and retrieval process,
· Schema influence what we encode and what we retrieve from memory by a process called rationalization.
· The initial purpose of reconstructive memory is to help people build better memories based on the pre-existing schemas. But when the schema is incoherent with the new information encoded, it may lead to the creation of memory distortion by the process of rationalization.
Rationalization: adapting information during recall in a way that makes the information more consistent with our existing schema.
Misinformation effect: Leading questions (questions that are suggestive in some way), and post-event information facilitate schema processing which may influence accuracy of recall.
Study:
Loftus & Palmer (Study 2)
· Aim: To further investigate the role of leading questions in recall of memory.
· Design:
o 150 students attend the experiment.
o Divided into 3 groups watch clip of car crash.
o Condition 1: hit, condition 2: smash, condition 3: control where no question on speed estimation.
o 1 week later, asked if see broken glass?
· Result & Conclusion:
o Smash condition has higher speed estimation and have more people recall broken glass than the hit condition and the control group.
· Link-back:
o The way a question is asked has enormous influence on answer given.
o Participants who in the smash condition have higher speed estimation and the recall of broken glass, because the word “smash” is stronger and more severe which infers higher speed and more damage on the car crash.
o Memory is not reliable. Affected by leading question, reconstructive memory.
· Evaluation:
o The study has high control over all extraneous variables. The researcher uses random allocation to group 150 participants, this allows the researcher to reduce the participant variability. The study also set two experimental group and one control group, which allows the researcher to compare the result by setting the control group as a reference, to see if the result in experiment group is significant. Lab condition.
o The study contains sampling bias. All participants are university student which is unrepresentative. Students have a younger mean age than most of the population, they lack the experience of driving car. Therefore, the effect of leading question on the estimation of car speed may be more dramatic in the student participants, but less significant in a larger population.
Neisser & Harsh
· Aim: to determine whether flashbulb memories are susceptible to distortion.
· Design:
o 44 valid responses from university students.
o First questionnaire in less than 24 hours after the Challenger disaster happened. Write description about how they heard.
o 2.5 years later, took the same questionnaire again. Asked to rate confidence.
· Result & Conclusion:
o There were major discrepancies between the two questionnaires with a high level of confidence.
o Flashbulb memories can be affected by reconstructive memory and the misinformation effect.
· Link-back:
o The study shows how the post-event information, from the misinformation effect, may affect the recall of memory.
o There is a 2.5-year gap between the Challenger event and the cognitive task. In the gap, individual will be exposed to media and news that alters their original memory on the event.
o This correspond to reconstructive memory, which claims that memory is an active process involving the reconstruction of information stored.
· Evaluation:
o High ecological validity. Real-life event not faked. The challenger disaster event is real, which means the result can be better applied to real-life setting. The participant filled in the questionnaire in familiar surroundings, not lab, makes their response realistic.
o Lacks control – extraneous variable Lack control. The study is a naturalistic experiment, which means that it has no control over the extraneous variables. There is a gap between the event and the study, participant may be exposed to media.
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